Gel Electrophoresis and the Action of Alkaline Phosphatase

Gel Electrophoresis and the Action of Alkaline Phosphatase Introduction In this practical, two common techniques found in clinical laboratories are performed. The first technique is called gel electrophoresis and the second is an enzyme activity assay.      Ã‚   Electrophoresis is a method that uses an electrical field to separate proteins by molecular size. In this case, the protein extracted in practical 1 and an unknown protein are separated and analysed using a polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Electrophoresis is a popular and widely used analytical technique in research, it can be used for a variety of applications but its most widespread use is the separation of proteins to then analyse and purify them. The technique has greatly evolved over the years since the instrumentation, buffer systems and visualization techniques have all been rapidly improving. This has helped to create different protein electrophoresis techniques such as isoelectric focusing (IEF) or electrophoretic transfer (commonly known as Blotting) which are great tools used in modern research methods (facebook page). The second experiment is an enzyme rate reaction experiment that uses alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Where the enzyme activity of a commercially available purified form of ALP is compared to the ALP activity of the cell lysate prepared in practical 1. A chemical reaction rate can be influenced by the presence of enzymes, these proteins can catalyse a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy of the reaction. They can do this all while remaining unchanged, making them a perfect candidate for a marker to monitor a chemical reaction rate. These reactions are found in all living organisms and naturally occur in metabolic pathways for example. The activity of an enzyme can be altered by a change in the pH, the concentration of the enzyme or the substrate, the temperature and by the presence of inhibitors. By controlling these changes the activity of an enzyme can be reliably monitored. Enzymes are very specific to their corresponding substrate. When an enzyme is mixed with its specific substrate in vitro, under optimum conditions, the substrate will bind to the active site of the enzyme to form the enzyme-substrate complex at a steady rate. Thus, until the substrate is used up or the enzyme begins to denature or the complex f ormed changes the reaction conditions. By monitoring the products of a chemical reaction, we can analyse the rate of production of enzyme-substrate complexes. In this experiment, ALP is the enzyme that speeds up the hydrolysis reaction that occurs to p-nitrophenyl phosphate to form p-nitrophenol. ALP is mainly found in the liver, bone, kidney but it is also produced by the cells in the small intestine. The CACO-2 cells used in practical 1 have very similar traits to cells found in the small intestine, therefore, the ALP activity in the extract can be measured. By monitoring the course of the reaction during various time points, the activity of ALP can be determined. Electrophoresis Materials Pipettes and tips Deionized water Electrophoresis polyacrylamide gel Electrophoresis apparatus Cell lysate (practical 1) Protein X Colour prestained Protein standard Laemlii buffer: NuPAGE LDS sample buffer 4x lot#1658555 opened on the 27/07/2015 Coomassie blue Running buffer Methods Firstly, a loading sample containing the cell lysate prepared in practical 1 was made by adding 2 µl of cell lysate, 3 µl of water and 5 µl of laemlii buffer into an Eppendorf tube. A second loading sample containing protein x was prepared by adding 10 µl of protein x to 10 µl of laemlii buffer into an Eppendorf tube. The samples were then added to a heated bath for 2 minutes. During this time, the polyacrylamide gel was opened and the comb and tape were gently removed. The electrophoresis cell was then assembled before filling the inner and outer buffer chambers with provided running buffer. The inner chamber had more buffer than the outer chamber to totally incubate the gel in the buffer. 10 µl of the protein x sample, 3 µl of the ladder and 14 µl of our cell lysate sample were then loaded onto the gel in different wells by carefully inserting them using a pipette with slender tips. Once the apparatus was correctly assembled, the electrophoresis cell was connected to the power supply and the electrophoresis was performed at 150mv for 1 and a half hours. After completion of the migration of the bands, the power supply was turned off and the electrical leads were disconnected. The gel cassette was then removed and the gel was gently transferred by floating it off the plate. The gel was then stained using Coomassie blue for an hour before transferring it to water. A picture of the gel was then taken for further interpretation. Results By measuring the migration distance travelled by the bands of proteins of known molecular weight, we can plot a standard curve of the distance travelled versus the molecular weight: Table 1. Standard bands migration distance versus fragment size Standard distance travelled (cm) Ladder fragment size (kDa) 2 245 2.7 190 3.5 135 4.5 100 5.6 80 7.1 58 8.5 46 10.3 32 11.6 25 12.6 22 13.4 17 14.1 11 Figure 3. Standard curve of the migration distance versus ladder fragment size of the protein standard This produces an equation that can be used to measure the sizes of the bands produced by the protein x sample. Table 2. Relative size of protein x components. Band number Protein x Sample distance travelled (cm) Protein x relative size proteins (kDa) 1 1.4 232.34 2 2.3 189.75 3 3.4 148.15 4 6.7 70.5 Discussion The bands observed in figure 1 are composed of proteins of the same size. The proteins are loaded in the negative end of the gel since they are negatively charged, as the electrophoresis reaction is occurring, the negative current will push the samples towards the positive end. The smaller samples will travel faster and thus further through the gel whereas larger sized proteins will tend to migrate less. This difference in migration is due to the structure of the gel, it has fine filaments that can be represented as a mesh. The density of the gel is dependent on the concentration. The smaller proteins will find it easier to travel through the mesh whereas the larger molecules will move much more slowly (facebook page). Also, we can observe that some bands are darker than others, this is because the darker bands have a higher concentration of a particular protein of the same size. We can estimate the molecular weight of the proteins by comparing the migration distances of the bands against the standard seen in well 1 (see figure 1). We can also observe the number of different protein sizes that are present in our samples by counting the number of bands. For example, our sample of protein x contains 4 visible bands, meaning there are 4 protein groups in protein-x. The most significant band in the protein x separation is the last band containing the smaller fragments of protein. This band is estimated to have proteins of about 70.5 kDa. This band can also be seen in the electrophoresis separation of the cell lysate prepared in practical 1. The band is seen in both samples because it is the band containing albumin. Albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood. It has a molecular mass of between 65-75 kDa which encompasses the estimated 70.5kDa of the proteins found in the bands calculated earlier (all about albumin, theodore Peters). In this practical, the use of beta-mercaptoethanol (BME) is used in combination with the sample buffer prior gel electrophoresis. It is activated by heating the sample and permits the successful migration of the subunits of the proteins during electrophoresis. It works by independently separating them on the SDS-PAGE. It completely denatures the disulphide bonds within the subunits to let the peptides freely migrate according to their chain length. By overcoming forms of tertiary protein folding and lysing oligomeric subunits, the influence of secondary structures is minimized. Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) is also used during the experiment, as discussed in practical 1, this substance is an anionic detergent and is used during electrophoresis to linearize and promote the negative charge of the proteins prior to gel electrophoresis. The result of this is the even distribution of charge throughout the protein to help separate the protein fragments according to their size (Detergent bi nding explains anomalous SDS page migration of membrane proteins). To stain the proteins in this practical, a Coomassie stain was used. This protein stain is the most common anionic protein dye. It is popular because it stains most proteins and has great advantages such as good quantitative linearity, good use in identification during mass spectrometry and short staining times, for example. Other dyes can be used in gel electrophoresis such as silver stains. These stains have very high sensitivity, but unlike Coomassie Blue, they offer a lower linear dynamic range and are usually complex, therefore the protocols are time-consuming. Also, they do not offer sufficient reproducibility for quantitative analysis. Other type of stains that are commonly used are fluorescent stains. These stains also offer high sensitivity but, unlike silver stains, have a wider linear dynamic range and are simple to use and robust. The disadvantage is that they are more expensive to use and require specific imaging equipment such as scanners to view the gel (facebook page) . The electrophoresis technique is now a routinely used method used in clinical laboratories to screen for protein abnormalities using samples of serum, urine or cerebral spinal fluid and can analyse specific proteins such as enzymes (ALP or LDH), lipoproteins or haemoglobin. These techniques are evaluated visually for the presence of abnormal protein bands and can also be quantitively measured to determine the concentration of the bands. In a normal serum protein electrophoresis, 5 distinct bands appear on the gel; the highest band contains albumin, followed by smaller bands containing alpha-1 globulins, alpha 2 globulins, beta globulins and finally gamma globulins. Analysing these bands can determine if abnormalities are present in the major proteins found in the body and can therefore be a valuable diagnostic tool. For example, changes in the zone containing the albumin band can help diagnose various abnormalities such as bisalbuminemia (2 bands instead of 1) and hyperalbuminemia. Significant changes in concentrations of other bands of the serum protein electrophoresis can easily help determine many different pathological disorders. The most common use of serum protein electrophoresis is for the diagnosis of multiple myeloma. An abnormal peak in a region of the gamma globulin area can indicate a monoclonal gammopathy. Monoclonal gammopathies have been shown to be associated with an anomalous clonal process that can lead to the development of cancerous tumours such as multiple myeloma (Patterns of serum protein electrophoresis, our experience at King Hussein Medical Center, Jordan). Another common use of electrophoresis in a clinical laboratory is lipoprotein electrophoresis. This method determines the concentrations of different lipoproteins such as LDL. High plasma levels of LDL have been associated with acute myocardial infarction and other heart related diseases. Conclusion Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins according to their sizes by migrating them through a gel using an electric gradient. The smaller proteins will migrate faster and further than larger sized proteins due to the structure of the gel. This technique can be used in various clinical settings, for example, to analyse lipoproteins or serum proteins to help diagnosis various conditions. Enzyme activity of Alkaline Phosphatase Materials Pipette and tips 96 well plate Commercial ALP Cell lysate from practical 1 Cell lysate provided Lysis buffer Para nitrophenol phosphate (PNP) 3M NaOH (stop solution) Plate reader Method The experiment was performed in different steps to minimize potential errors due to timing issues. The first was the monitoring of the commercial ALP enzyme reaction rate in combination with the blank test. This was done by adding 100 µl of the commercial ALP into 6 wells of the same line. The enzyme substrate Paranitrophenol phosphate was then added to all the wells as fast as possible to maintain a homogenous reaction in all the wells. Prior to the addition of the enzyme and the substrate, 50 µl of the stop solution (NaOH) was added to the first well to provide an initial reaction rate of 0s. 50  µl of stop solution was then added to the other wells at a 3-minute interval until the final 6th well (t=15min). The plate was then read at 410nm and the results were collected. During this time, a blank test was performed by using the same method. The only difference was that the wells only contained 200  µl of enzyme substrate and therefore no enzyme. After this was performed, an enzyme rate reaction for the provided cell lysate was done. Firstly, a stock solution of 700  µl was done by adding 350  µl cell lysate with 350  µl of buffer. 100  µl of the cell lysate stock solution was added to 6 wells. The first well also contained 50  µl of the stop solution as mentioned earlier. 100  µl of enzyme substrate was then added to all the wells as fast as possible. After 3 minutes, 50  µl of the stop solution was then added to the second well, followed by the third 3 minutes later, and so on until the last well. The plate was then read at 410 nm on the plate reader. The final enzyme reaction contained the cell lysate prepared in practical 1. Firstly, a 700  µl stock solution of cell lysate was done by adding 175  µl of the cell lysate created in practical 1 to 525  µl of lysis buffer. 100  µl of the cell lysate stock solution was added to 6 wells. The first contained 50  µl of stop solution as mentioned earlier. 100  µl of enzyme substrate was then added to all the wells as fast as possible. After 3 minutes, 50  µl of stop solution was added to the second well, followed by the third 3 minutes later, and so on until the last well. The plate was then read at 410nm on the plate reader. This experiment was done twice to provide duplicates. Table 3. 96 well plate distribution (time (t) in minutes) 1 (t=0) 2 (t=3) 3 (t=6) 4 (t=9) 5 (t=12) 6 (t=15) A BLANK BLANK BLANK BLANK BLANK BLANK B C Commercial ALP Commercial ALP Commercial ALP Commercial ALP Commercial ALP Commercial ALP D E Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate F G Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate Practical 1 Cell lysate H Provided Cell lysate Provided Cell lysate Provided Cell lysate Provided Cell lysate Provided Cell lysate Provided Cell lysate Results Table 4. 96 well plate absorbance (410nm) results 1 (t=0) 2 (t=3) 3 (t=6) 4 (t=9) 5 (t=12) 6 (t=15) A 0.284 0.303 0.288 0.344 0.294 0.290 B C 0.277 0.355 0.433 0.504 0.582 0.674 D E 0.662 0.396 0.483 0.635 0.685 1.131 F G 0.330 0.544 0.487 0.563 0.614 0.708 H 0.329 0.545 0.740 0.814 0.915 0.967 By using these absorbance, we can plot a graph of the absorbance versus the time for the various tested samples to analyse and compare them. Note that the results from well E1 and G2 have been omitted due to the errors occurred during pipetting (E1 well is t=0 but absorbance is abnormally high and G2 absorbance is abnormally high). Fortunately, these wells were part of a duplicate so the other result from the sample was kept. Figure 4. Graph of the absorbance over time of the commercial ALP, the cell lysate from practical 1 and the provided cell lysate. The activity of an enzyme can be measured by determining the rate of the formation of the product or the rate at which the substrate is used up. The rate of the reaction decreases when the substrate is being used up, therefore, the rate must be measured during the period when the formation of the product or decrease in substrate is linear with time. The rate of a reaction at time 0 is called the initial linear reaction rate (V=0min). By using the polynomial equations for each curve, an initial rate can be determined where V0=A410min-1. In other words, the value (b) in front of x in the quadratic equation y=ax2+bx+c is the initial rate of the reaction ( youtube vid). Assuming that 0.1 mM of the solution of the reaction product produces an absorbance of 1, we can determine the enzyme rate as shown below. Table 5. Initial rates for each sample Sample Initial rate (Abs/min) Enzyme rate (mM/Min) Practical 1 lysate 0.1059 0.01059 Blank 0.0336 0.00336 Commercial ALP 0.0695 0.00695 Provided ALP 0.2745 0.02745 Discussion By using this technique, we can calculate how fast an enzyme can catalyse a reaction. In this case, we can compare the rate of reaction of the cell lysate, the provided ALP and the commercial ALP to the blank sample as shown below: Cell lysate: (0.0059/0.00336) = 1.756 It can be said that the ALP present in the cell lysate from practical 1 sped up the reaction 1.756 times faster compared to the reaction without it. Commercial ALP: (0.00695/0.00336) = 2.065 It can be said that the commercial ALP sped up the reaction 2.065 times faster than without the commercial ALP. Provided ALP: (0.02745/0.00336) = 8.17 It can be said that the provided ALP sped up the reaction 8.17 times faster than without the provided ALP. Conclusion ALP is a widely-used enzyme in our body, it removes phosphate groups by a process called dephosphorisation. Its activity can be measured in vitro by monitoring its activity during a chemical reaction in controlled conditions. The experiment used different samples containing ALP to catalyse the reaction of p-nitrophenyl phosphate to form p-nitrophenol. In conclusion, the results confirmed that ALP can speed up a reaction and this acceleration was measured by comparing the rate of reaction compared to a blank sample.

High School Finance Teacher

Accrual vs. Cash Basis Accounting Alicia Wiley Grantham University Abstract In this paper I have defined accrual and cash basis accounting. Also, I have answered the following questions: Explain the difference between the accrual basis of accounting and the cash basis of accounting. What are the major reasons for using accrual accounting? What are the purpose of a journal and a ledger? Give an example of a contra-asset, and explain how it is recorded on the ledger as a transaction. Explain what a â€Å"prepaid expense† is and how it is recorded on the ledger as a transaction.What are the major differences in recording transactions for a for-profit organization versus a not-for-profit, or are there any? List and record each transaction for S. Zee Outpatient Clinic under the accrual basis of accounting at December 31, 20X1, then develop a balance sheet as of December 31, 20X1, and a statement of operations for the year ended December 31, 20X1. How do capital structure rations an d liquidity rations differ in providing insight into an organization’s ability to pay debt obligations?Identify and explain two situations where an organization might have increasing activity rations but declining profitability. Explain the difference between the accrual basis of accounting and the cash basis of accounting. What are the major reasons for using accrual accounting? Cash accounting and accrual accounting are two similar methods of maintaining accurate accounting records. While the two approaches share many aspects in common, there are two key differences that distinguish each method from the other.Essentially, the difference between cash accounting and accrual accounting boils down to the way debits and credits are applied in the bookkeeping process. To understand the difference, it is first necessary to define each type of accounting process. Cash accounting, which is also known as cash basis accounting, allows for the recognition of income at the time it is ac tually received. This means that invoiced income is not counted as an asset until payment for the invoice is actually in hand. The same approach is applied to debits, in that any expenses incurred are not osted until they are paid. In contrast, accrual accounting does recognize income at the time it is earned. As goods or services are invoiced, the invoices are posted and counted as assets. They remain in this state until the face value of the invoice is credited for some reason. In like manner, any expenses are also posted at the time they are incurred or an invoice for those expenses is received, and remains open until the expenses are paid. Most mid-level and large businesses today tend to rely on the use of the accrual method rather than cash accounting.Doing so allows a business to determine at a glance how much cash is in hand, how much is currently pending in outstanding invoices, and what current expenses are awaiting payment. What are the purpose of a journal and a ledger? The purpose of the general ledger is to record all financial transactions for a company or person and total them on a net basis (plus accounts less minus accounts) for a certain time frame according to a summary chart of accounts. The general ledger provides the important information necessary for the preparation of all basic reports required by a company or individual.For example, the general ledger will allow the preparation of balance sheet reports and profit and loss reports for all accounting periods under review. This helps to explain why the general ledger is so important. Journal is used to record transactions in chronological order Give an example of a contra-asset, and explain how it is recorded on the ledger as a transaction? Contra-asset is an asset which, when increased, decreases the value of a related asset on the books. An example of a contra-asset is the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts, which is the contra asset to Accounts Receivable.Contra-asset would be recorded on the balance of the debit matched up against the contra-asset credit. Explain what a â€Å"prepaid expense† is and how it is recorded on the ledger as a transaction? A prepaid expense, such as rent or insurance, is a type of current asset. It is recorded by decreasing Cash and increasing the prepaid amount by the same amount. Thus, the transaction only occurs in the Asset section of the Balance Sheet, and it is a zero-sum transaction. What are the major differences in recording transactions for a for-profit organization versus a not-for-profit, or are there any?For-profit organization would record certain transactions under Owner’s Equity, whereas the Not-for-Profit would use Net Assets. Also, a for-profit would not show restrictions on Owners’ Equity. List and record each transaction for S. Zee Outpatient Clinic under the accrual basis of accounting at December 31, 20X1, then develop a balance sheet as of December 31, 20X1, and a statement of operations for t he year ended December 31, 20X1. Journal Entries | | | | | | a | Cash | | 3,000,000. 00 | | | Unrestricted Contribution | | | 3,000,000. 00 | | | | | | | Equipment | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | | | | c | Cash | | 1,000,000. 00 | | | Bank Loan | | | 1,000,000. 00 | | | | | | d | Supplies | | 1,500,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 1,500,000. 00 | | | | | | e | Accounts Receivable | | 5,500,000. 00 | | | Service Revenue | | | 5,500,000. 00 | | | | | | f | Supplies Expense | | 1,000,000. 00 | | | Supplies | | | 1,000,000. 00 | | | | | | g | Cash | | 500,000. 00 | | | Unearned Service Revenue | | | 500,000. 00 | | | | | | h | Labor Expenses | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | | | | | General Expenses | | 1,500,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 1,500,000. 00 | | | | | | j | Cash | | 4,500,000. 00 | | | Accounts Receivable | | | 4,500,000. 00 | | | | | | k | Unearned Service Revenue | | 300,000. 00 | | | Service Revenue | | | 300,000. 00 | | | | | | l | Bank Loan | | 100,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 100,000. 00 | | | | | | m | Interest Expense | | 50,000. 00 | | | Cash | | | 50,000. 00 | | | | | | n | Cash | | 100,000. 00 | | | Restricted Donation | | | 100,000. 00 | | | | | | o | Depreciation Expense | | 200,000. 00 | | | Accumulated Depreciation | | | 200,000. 0 | | | | | | p | Bad Debt Expense | | 500,000. 00 | | | Accounts Receivable | | | 500,000. 00 | | | | | | | OPERATIONS SUMMARY | | | | | | | Service Revenue | | | 5,800,000. 00 | | Less:Expenses | | | | | Supplies Expense | | 1,000,000. 00 | | | Labor Expenses | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | General Expenses | | 1,500,000. 00 | | | Interest Expense | | 50,000. 00 | | | Depreciation Expense | | 200,000. 00 | | | Bad Debt Expense | | 500,000. 00 | | | | | 5,250,000. 00 | 5,250,000. 00 | | | | | | | Net Income from Operations | | | 550,000. 00 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31 Dec | | | | | | | Assets : | | | | | Cash | | 1,950,000. 00 | | | Equipment | | 2,000,000. 00 | | | Supplies | | 500,000. 00 | | | Accounts Receivable | | 500,000. 00 | | | | | | | | Total Assets | | 4,950,000. 00 | | | | | | | | Liabilities | | | | | | | | | | Un restricted Contribution | | 3,000,000. 00 | | | Restricted Contribution | | 100,000. 00 | | | Net Income | | 550,000. 00 | | | Unearned Service Revenue | | 200,000. 00 | | | Bank Loan | | 900,000. 00 | | | Accumulated Depreciation | | 200,000. 00 | | | | | | | | Total Liabilities | | 4,950,000. 0| | How do capital structure rations and liquidity rations differ in providing insight into an organization’s ability to pay debt obligations? Liquidity is a company’s ability to meet its maturing short-term obligations. Liquidity is important for conducting business activity especially in times of adversity such as when operating losses occur due to economic conditions or drastic price increases of raw materials or parts. Liquidity ratios show a company’s ability to generate sufficient cash to meet its obligations. Liquidity must be sufficient to cushion such losses.If not, serious financial difficulties may result. An indication of a company’s ability to meet short-term debt obligations; the higher the ratio, the more liquid the company is. Identify and explain two situations where an organization might have increasing activity rations but declining profitability. Activity rations help assess how effectively a company uses its assets. Reference Zelman, W. , McCue, M. , Millikan, A. , and Glick, N. 2009. Financial Management of Health Care Organizations: An Introduction to Fundamental Tools, Concepts, and Applications. 3e. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Global Warming Fact or Fiction - 694 Words

GLOBAL WARMING FACT OR FICTION BUSN300-1101B-17 Nadine Willis 15636824 March 24, 2011 Global Warming Fact or Fiction Global warming has been a hot topic for many governments in the last 20 years, with scientists on both sides of the issue. With many of the information that comes out is hard to common people to understand, it can make it hard for them to know what is true and what is not. There are some scientists that have been saying for many years that the way we like is causing a Green House effect on Earth. In simple terms, you think of a green house, farmers use greenhouses to trap warm air so they can grow plants that normally do not grow in colder months all year long. Now taking this in to a large scale, by driving cars,Show MoreRelatedGlobal Warming: Fact or Fiction1089 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Warming: Fact or Fiction Lower Capstone – Unit 3 Independent Project Rozlynn Mundy American InterContinental University Online July 4, 2010 Title: Global Warming: Fact or Fiction Abstract Introduction I. Overview of Global Warming A. Signs of global warming a. Support b. Skepticism II. Effects of Global Warming A. Contributors to global a. Manmade b. Natural Summary Abstract The information found in this paper is designed to raiseRead MoreGlobal Warming-Fact or Fiction1597 Words   |  7 PagesGlobal Warming - Fact or Fiction? - Speech The Earth is rapidly heating up or is it? If it is, the next few decades may witness Biblical scenes of rising temperatures, crop failures, flooding and the extinction of different species. On the other hand, increases of Carbon Dioxide in our atmosphere may well encourage plants and trees to thrive like never before. Whom can you believe? One thing is certain the debate on climate change and Global Warming is heating up. It is surely right forRead MoreGlobal Warming: Fact Or Fiction?824 Words   |  3 PagesGlobal Warming: Fact or Fiction This paper will discuss the issue of Global Warming. It is true that not everyone believes that Global Warming is an issue. Because of this there are two distinct groups, the Supporters and the Skeptics. Global warming is an issue that we face daily. Without immediate action we will soon have to face the consequences. This is an issue that needs to be addressed immediately by Congress so we can preserve the worlds resources for our children as well as our grandchildrenRead MoreGlobal Warming : Fact Or Fiction? Essay1395 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal Warming: Fact or Fiction? In today’s society commoners are hard pressed from both sides of a raging debate that has encompassed the political landscape of America and much of the world. This raging debate concerns Global Warming or preferably Climate Change. Each side trying to convince the populace one way or the other. On one side the liberal ideology is convinced that the rapid change in the temperature of the earth is caused by extensive human Carbon Dioxide emissions. On the otherRead MoreGlobal Warming: Fact or Fiction? Essay867 Words   |  4 Pages Many claim that global warming is obvious and that all arguments against global warming fall. The problem is that what is â€Å"obvious† often isn’t true. â€Å"A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earths atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants.† This is the Webster dictionary definition of Global Warming, which basically says that due to an overflow of harmful and hazardous chemicalsRead More Global Warming: Fact Vs. Fiction Essay1564 Words   |  7 PagesGlobal Warming: Fact Vs. Fiction Global Warming -- the gradual increase in planet-wide temperatures -- seems to be accepted by many scientists and people now as fact. Generally, this warming is attributed to the increase of green-house gases in the Earths upper atmosphere. However, some solar scientists are considering whether the warming exists at all. And, if it does, mightRead MoreGlobal Warming, Fact Or Fiction? What Is The Evidence For Or Against? Essay885 Words   |  4 Pages#1- Global Warming, fact or fiction? What is the evidence for or against? Global warming is a constant topic that is frequently discussed throughout the world. Many people including environmentalist, study this topic to determine the seriousness and world impact. The typical understanding of this concept â€Å"global warming† is known to be the total long-term intensification in the temperature present in the atmosphere (3). When discussing this topic, it is still important to consider the fact if GlobalRead MoreDebates On Global Warming658 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿I. Global Warming: Fact or Fiction A. Background of the debate on the perceived global warming phenomenon 1. Temperature increase 2. Disparity and the reasons why B. Arguments for the perceived fact of human influence on global warming 1. The greenhouse effect 2. Global disaster C. Arguments that human influence on global warming is fictitious 1. Amount of CO2 2. Natural reasons for global warming One of the most longstanding and most passionately debated topics in the scientificRead MoreThe Issue Of Global Warming1605 Words   |  7 Pagesof global warming is controversial and there are people claiming that global warming is only a fiction instead of a fact. However, research from scientists found that at the beginning of 2000, unprecedented warming was recorded and the Arctic ice has melted to the lowest levels in the recorded history. Moreover, the sea level has also risen by eight inches since 1870 (â€Å"The Scientific Truth about Climate Change†). Although natural forcing mechanisms alone cannot explain the formation of global warmingRead MoreA Portion Of The Article And Debate857 Words   |  4 PagesA portion of the article and debate: â€Å"Global warming is a fact. It just isn t man-made. I suspect that the ecoalarmists of Al Gore s ilk are as much aware of that fact as I am. But more important, so are the world s astrophysicists who study the universe—and, with it, our neighboring planets. Habibullo Abdussamatov, head of the St. Petersburg Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory in Russia noted in 2005 that the current warming cycle on Earth is also affecting our neighbors—Venus and Mars.† (Furthermore)

Credit Card Fraud - 1910 Words

Running Head: Credit Card Fraud Impact of Credit Card Fraud Outline Card Credit Fraud Thesis Statement: Credit card fraud is an inclusive term for larceny and deception committed using a credit card or any similar payment mechanism as a fraudulent source of funds in a transaction. The purpose may be to attain goods without paying, or to achieve illegal resources from an account. Credit card fraud is also an appendage to identity theft. According to the Federal Trade Commission, while identity theft had been holding steady for the last few years, it saw a 21 percent increase in 2008..( Consumer Sentinel Network Data Book: January - December 2008 (PDF). Federal Trade Commission February 26, 2009.) The costs of card fraud in 2006†¦show more content†¦They require a personal identification number (PIN) which may also be a violation. Card holders have several countermeasures, including complex software which can assemble a vest interaction and guesstimate the possibility of fraud. For example, a large trade occurring in a great distance from the cardholder’s home might seem mistrustful. Merchants may be commanded to call the card holder for authentication, or reject the transaction or do whatever they want. Customers must call the issuer and prove t heir identity to get their card back. III. Compromised accounts Card bank account information is stored in a number of formats. Account numbers – formally the Primary Account Number (PAN) – are often stamped or imprinted on the card, and a magnetic streak on the back contains the data in machine readable format. Fields can vary, but the most common include: * Name of card holder * Account number * Expiration date * Verification/CVV code A. Card not present transactions The major routes of fraud which is contrary for merchants who sale and ship products are the mail and the internet as they affect legitimate mail-order and Internet merchants. The card should be present (called CNP, card not present) so the merchant can trust the issuer (or someone purporting to be so) issuers present their information in any way theyShow MoreRelatedCredit Card Fraud Essay3025 Words   |  13 PagesCredit Card Fraud: Overview, Analysis, and Recommendations Credit card fraud is a significant problem in the U.S. with losses exceeding $5.718 billion annually (Sullivan, 2010). Perpetrators are continually developing new methods to circumvent established and evolving fraud prevention controls. With economic expansion continuing its advance into the digital era and electronic forms of payments increasingly common, the problem of credit card fraud is likely to increase. Internet-based creditRead MoreCredit Card Fraud Essay2919 Words   |  12 Pagesform of credit card, brought in convenience and made life simpler for us, but along with it came the Pandora’s Box. While credit cards have made life easy for us, they have also managed to make life easy for the crooks. While enabling us to purchase things we fancy whilst seated on our couch, it has on the other hand made it easy for fraudsters to guzzle away money that is not truly theirs. In this paper, I would be: i. Problem Statement ii. Introducing the topic about credit card fraud iii.Read MoreCredit Card Fraud And Money Laundering2028 Words   |  9 Pages Running head: CREDIT CARD FRAUD MONEY LAUNDERING 1 White Collar Crime: Credit Card Fraud and Money Laundering Datuawn Frazier Lillian Esedebe Morrisville State College CREDIT CARD FRAUD MONEY LAUNDERING 2 Abstract In this paper we will be exploring white collar crime and specifically credit card fraud and money laundering. We will be discussing what exactly credit card fraud entails and how it takes places explaining the different methods of how criminals can stealRead MoreEssay on Technology, Privacy and Credit Card Fraud706 Words   |  3 PagesTechnology, Privacy and Credit Card Fraud The advancement of technology over the years appeared to be the greatest thing known to mankind.   With the Internet, the world is at ones finger tips and just about anything can be accessed using it.   This is not necessarily a good thing, with crimes like creidt card fraud going around.   The number of credit card fraud incidents is rapidly increasing as the years progress.   Anybody with a credit card could possibly be a victim of this crime and it shouldRead MoreEssay on Credit Card Fraud4202 Words   |  17 Pages- PDF  (90 K) Credit card fraud: awareness and prevention Katherine J. Barker,  Jackie DAmato,  Paul Sheridon.  Journal of Financial Crime.  London:  2008.  Vol. 15, Iss. 4;  pg. 398 Abstract (Summary) To make readers aware of the pervasiveness of credit card fraud and how it affects credit card companies, merchants and consumers. A range of recent publications in journals and information from internet web sites provide corroboration and details of how fraudsters are using credit cards to steal billionsRead MoreWorld Wide Credit Card Fraud1353 Words   |  6 Pages Credit card fraud transpires daily and in a variety of ways. Often times the consumer that has been a victim of credit card fraud is unaware until they notice the fraudulent charges for purchases they never made. Thieves obtain credit card information in a number of way, data breaches, compromised card information, a dishonest employee at a restaurant or retails store, by a fraudulent website, by giving out credit card information to someone over phone with malice intent. According to StatisticRead MoreCredit Card Fraud Should Be A Federal Offense1120 Words   |  5 Pages Abstract Credit card fraud is a federal offense and can get an offender up to 20 years in prison depending on the severity of the situation. Should it be a federal offense? Credit card fraud is becoming more and more relevant especially in the United States , matter of fact it increased by 16% in 2016 alone. This is a serious problem in today s society. The hypothesis that s being examined in this paper is that credit card fraud should be a federal offense. This has become a relevantRead MoreDigital Credit And Debit Card Fraud Essay741 Words   |  3 PagesThe Problem: Worldwide credit and debit card fraud resulted in losses amounting to $16.31 billion during the year 2014. The United States has been disproportionately affected by this fraud, due to their lack of adoption of the EMV Chip security measure. According to the 2012 Nilson Report, American card issuers lost $3.4 billion and merchants lost another $1.9 billion. America makes credit card fraud easy for fraudsters, by still relying on cards with magnetic strips which are less secureRead MoreCredit Card Fraud, An Integral Part Of The World s Economy1259 Words   |  6 Pagesmoney. Credit and Debit cards have become an integral part of the world’s economy. Due to this extensive usage of cards, we have become a â€Å"cashless society†. We make use of credit cards to make online payments, to buy items at retailers and grocery stores; almost anywhere we go and purchase, we extensively make use of credit cards. This over dependency and usage of credit cards has given rise t o new form of crime called the Credit Card fraud. Credit card fraud is the use of one person’s credit cardRead MoreEvolution Of Credit Card Fraud Within The Growing E Commerce Industry1716 Words   |  7 PagesA565_section_14447_Tina Pang _Credit Card Fraud_ Final Paper_10/11/2014 I examine the evolution of credit card fraud within the growing e-commerce industry. Online Shopping: Risk of Paying More than You Receive I examine the evolution of credit card fraud in regards of the technology or methodology fraudsters used specifically within the e-commerce industry, and discuss various security concerns companies have for establishing online shopping sites. The appearance of credit cards and the growing e-commerce